Furniture of the Middle Ages in Western Europe. Middle Ages

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Furniture and interior equipment in the Middle Ages

In historical science, the Middle Ages is the era of feudalism, which in Europe lasted several centuries from the end of the 5th century. until the XVII-XVIII centuries.

Byzantium is one of the most significant world civilizations, which left behind numerous architectural monuments, works of applied art, etc.

Compared to Greco-Roman furniture, Byzantine furniture is much simpler in shape (Fig. 2.9). Stools, folding chairs, chests, and beds are widely used. The artistic effect was achieved by abundantly decorating the products with color painting, ivory, smalt inlay, precious stones and metals.

In designing the interior and furnishings of palaces and dwellings, the Byzantines continued Roman traditions, but the influence of oriental luxury increased. Silk fabrics with rich patterns, low and soft ottomans and sofas were used.

Rice. 2.9. Byzantine chair, 6th century. n. e.

The Romanesque style dominated the art of medieval Europe from the 10th to the 11th centuries. The way of life of the early Middle Ages in Europe did not create conditions for the emergence of a comfortable home, and the very concept of “furniture” did not yet exist. At the hearths they sat on benches, roughly hewn blocks of wood.

During this period, furniture was created mainly for churches: benches, music stands, cabinets, chests, etc.

The chest was a universal household furniture item (Fig. 2.10,a). It simultaneously served as a bed, seating furniture, and a travel suitcase. The first chests were hollowed out from tree trunks, and later they began to be made from untreated thick boards, often decorated with carvings from wedge-shaped notches. Later, chests began to be shackled with metal, placed on wheels or on rather high legs.

Seating furniture was made from a set of turned rods or boards. In addition to chairs and armchairs (Fig. 2.10,6), a turned three-legged stool with four legs was widespread. Footstools were often made for chairs.

A forged chest turned on its side was the prototype of the cabinet (Fig. 2.10, c). Its frontal completion resembles the side facade of an ancient Roman sarcophagus.

The beds were created of the Byzantine type. Later, under the influence of the oriental tent structure, a canopy appears above the bed, which created the illusion of security.

The tables are simple, of plank construction. Rectangular tables have no legs and rest on two plank sides, connected for strength by massive bars. More complex in design are round and octagonal tables on one stand with a mass of carpentry consoles.

The forms of Romanesque furniture are simple, laconic and primitive. The motifs of the ornament are borrowed from architecture (Fig. 2.11). The furniture was painted in bright colors.

The luxury of interior decoration was achieved with expensive tablecloths, bedspreads, and household utensils made from. precious materials.

The Gothic style developed as the monasteries and their wealth grew as a result of pilgrimages and crusades.

In the Gothic interior of city houses, massive wooden oak beam ceilings with purlins and beams played an important role. The compositional center of the interior was the fireplace.

Rice. 2.10. Romanesque furniture: a - chest; b - chair; into the cupboard

Important role were allocated to dishes (jugs, trays, mugs, dishes), which, like other items, were placed on shelves. The main role in furnishing the interior continued to belong to chests, which were placed along the walls.

In interior decoration, the fabrics used to cover the walls were of great importance. From the middle of the 14th century. began to produce woven carpets (trellises) with thematic compositions and ornamental motifs. Fabrics were widely used for tablecloths, bedspreads, chests and seats.

Rice. 2.11. Examples of ornamentation of Romanesque furniture: a-chest; b-chair

The development of urban furniture was facilitated by the revival of frame-panel knitting. Now furniture was constructed not from thick bars, which made it heavy, but from thin sawn boards (Fig. 2.12). Architectural and naturalistic plant patterns were used in furniture decoration.

The main type of furniture both in the houses of the nobility and ordinary townspeople remains the chest, often with frames and panels, which are decorated with pointed arches, have a base and are close to the shape of a cabinet.

New types of furniture are also appearing, for example, various cabinets for dishes: buffet, cabinet-supplier, dressing room (type of supply). In the 15th century large closed cabinets with two or four doors appear.

The number of varieties in the design of Gothic tables has increased. Flat carvings appeared on the side panels of the tables, and middle part began to be lightened with an opening in the form of a double or single Gothic window with a lattice frame. An early form appears desk with a lifting lid, under which there were compartments and small drawers. Tables with four inclined legs connected at the bottom by a leg were also common.

Rice. 2.12. Gothic style in the subject-spatial environment:
a - fragment of the interior of the temple in Amiens; b- bed; b - gothic chair

Seating furniture gradually became more varied, but long time Benches and chests attached to walls remained the most common furniture for sitting and lying. The basic form of the Gothic chair emerged from the shape of a chest with a high, blank back and armrests. The seat is liftable (Fig. 2.13a). The top of the backrest ends in a horizontal cornice with a carved ridge above it. Individual parts of the chair are decorated with abundant relief carvings. The smooth plank seat was hard, the bottom drawer was hard on the legs, and the carved sheer back was not comfortable.

The furniture frame was decorated with architectural divisions: transverse ribbed elements, arrows, turrets, columns, which gave the product lightness. The shape of pointed arches and niches was also used to decorate furniture, and then images of figures began to appear.

Rice. 2.13. French Gothic furniture:
a - closet; b - chair; c - chest

The most elegant in proportions, selection of decorations and proportionality of individual parts is French Gothic furniture (Fig. 2.13 and 2.14). It is distinguished by the elegance of its forms and the sophistication of its details.

India. An idea of ​​the character of an Indian urban residential building and its interior is given by images on reliefs and stone sculpture. City houses are multi-story, with balconies, open galleries, and decorated with rich ornaments.

To decorate furniture, varnishing, inlay from ebony, mother-of-pearl, ivory, ivory carving, and later openwork carving were used.

Furniture for sitting on crossed legs. Pillows were often used. From the 4th century BC e. influenced by Greek art wide use get low bed with a wicker bed, a stool with turned and varnished legs and a wicker seat (Fig. 2.15).

Rice. 2.14. Gothic Tudor style furniture:
a - chair; b- motifs of Gothic ornament; in ~ - closet; g - triangular chair; d - chest made of oak wood

China. The art of furniture in China has its roots in ancient times. It is closely related to the development of architecture and home interiors.

Furniture (Fig. 2.16) is represented by a variety of sun loungers and beds with wicker or flat wooden beds. The bed is often equipped with a fence - slatted or woven. Chairs and armchairs were initially low, and then acquired a traditional shape. The cabinet of panel design was rectangular shape, and then curved outlines and a frame structure appeared.

Rice. 2.15. Indian furniture: a - ceremonial chair; b- bed; c - stool

The furniture was made from various materials: wood, various fibers (wicker furniture), porcelain and stone. The fittings were made from an alloy of copper and nickel with the addition of zinc. Chinese lacquer furniture was especially famous.

The furniture was also decorated with inlays of colored wood, bone, horn, mother-of-pearl, shells, semi-precious stones and metal.

Japan. A Japanese house is a room-house (Fig. 2.17), that is, each building has only one room inside. To subdivide the internal space use movable walls and screens, which allows you to quickly transform this space and makes it possible to use the same room in a variety of ways depending on the time of day and need.

Rice. 2.16. Chinese furniture:
a- a set of stools (low tables) of seven pieces, black lacquer with gilding; b - front bed; c - bamboo chair

Another feature that had a great influence on the design and aesthetic properties of the house and garden was the custom of sitting on a mat-covered floor. Calculation of the figure of a person sitting on the floor determined the proportional design of the interior, the height of the premises, and the scale of things. The custom of sitting on the floor did not require special furniture - chairs, armchairs, sofas and a permanent table for meals.

Rice. 2.17. Interior Japanese house

Basic materials in Japanese house- polished unpainted wood and paper. The floor is completely covered with tatami - thick mats made of rice straw. Under the tatami is wooden grate. Tatami has a strictly defined size (205x199 cm) and serves as a module for the entire home, being the basis of the standardization system of Japanese architecture.

Low paper lanterns are widespread in the interior of a Japanese home. For meals there are lacquered serving tables, on which people sit directly on mats or on flat cotton or woven straw or grass pillows (zabu-ton). Sleeping mattresses are covered with cotton, almost square blankets (futon). In ancient times, a varnished wooden stand with a soft rotating cushion served as a pillow. Bed dress put away for a day in wall niches. For work, special tables with a height of 20-40 cm and an elongated shape are used. drawers(Fig. 2.18).

A characteristic and central detail of the interior is a niche (tokono-ma), where modest but exquisite decorations are located - a painting scroll, a vase with flowers. Nearby there may be another niche with Z-shaped shelves (tigandana).

Rice. 2.18. Furniture and equipment of a Japanese residential building:
a - paper lamp; b- serving table; c- head stand; g - desktop with drawers; d- built-in equipment (tokono-ma); e - varnished cabinet

Japanese furniture is characterized by irregular, asymmetrical combinations of elements and their rhythmic construction, elegant ornamentation based on natural forms, high artistic taste, thoughtfulness and completeness of all details, unity of form, material and finishing.

After the decline of ancient culture, art was subordinated to religion for a long time. Byzantine architecture is associated with cult and temple construction. Temples were the main architectural structure; they were built everywhere and different sizes, got off richly. Ancient culture is gradually forgotten, stagnation has set in in the improvement of productive forces. The old was destroyed, no new was built, the architecture became primitive.

The fragmentation of warring feudal principalities caused massive fortress construction. Castles-fortresses were surrounded by walls, city ​​life froze, and the centers of culture moved to monasteries. The architecture of the sala is ponderous and closed.

In designing the interior, the Byzantines continued the traditions of the Romans. The forms of furniture were simplified compared to Greek and Roman ones. The artistic effect was achieved by the abundance of precious metals.

The first artistic system of the Middle Ages, which covered most European countries, was the Romanesque style. The most important element The architectural compositions of this style included massive walls, the heaviness of which was emphasized by narrow loophole windows.

During this period, the concept of “furniture” in the modern sense did not exist, since constant wars and robberies did not create conditions for home improvement. In the fortresses of the feudal lords, residential towers were equipped for housing - high, dim halls, fenced with stone walls. Somewhat later, wooden paneling appeared. The living rooms were narrow and gloomy, without luxurious decoration.

During the Middle Ages, furniture, like other items, was made crudely. The designs were primitive, the shapes bulky and massive. For example, cabinets were made from untreated thick boards without the use of ties; they were held in place using wrought iron plates. The main tools for making furniture were an ax and a planer, and the performers were a carpenter and a blacksmith.

The most significant item was the chest, which later began to be replaced by a wardrobe. A table with vertical planes as supports is known. Benches, tripod stools, and wooden chairs with a high back were used for seating.

Furniture was decorated with forged plates and nails, as well as colored painted ornaments. Architectural motifs were used in furniture freely and randomly. Ornaments were applied haphazardly and often without respecting proportions or relationship with the product. The paints used, like the shapes of the furniture themselves, were simple and crude.

Despite its primitiveness, the features of the Romanesque style turned out to be tenacious in folk furniture, which was freed from excess material, and its proportions were slightly lightened.

The intensive growth of cities, the development of crafts, trade, and the formation of new social relations found their artistic expression in the heyday of the Gothic style (XII - XV centuries), the birthplace of which is France. Feudal-ecclesiastical influence was clearly evident in Gothic.

Using the example of architectural forms and household items Gothic period, one can trace the unity of the style of the objective world. Costume, like architecture, has its own tectonics and constructive clarity. A characteristic feature of the Gothic costume silhouette is its elongated proportions and vertical lines, corresponding to the skyward architecture. Clocks and furniture are also decorated in this style, which was due to the need to match their shapes to the same Gothic interior.

IN early period Gothic furniture was still heavy and clumsy; boxwork remained the basis of furniture design. But in terms of the variety of objects, and also in terms of the technique of execution, early Gothic furniture is already more perfect than furniture of the early Middle Ages. Further improvement of furniture, the creation of its new forms and types was facilitated by the invention at the beginning of the 14th century. two-handed saw, the use of tenon joints and frame-panel knitting (known to the ancient Romans, but forgotten). Instead of a carpenter and a blacksmith, furniture began to be made by a carpenter, a carver, a painter, and a gilder.

With the improvement of furniture production technology, products are given harmony and simplicity of form. During the period of prosperity of the Gothic style, the houses of feudal lords and wealthy townspeople were richly furnished. Traditional chests, various cabinets, stands, armchairs, chairs, and beds are made.

The Gothic style had common features in different countries: accentuation of verticals, a certain geometric silhouette of an object, division of edges, rich carvings, etc. The ornament was mainly of three types - openwork, foliage and ribbon weaving (the so-called linen folds, or napkins). The ornament was made with low-relief carving, which corresponded to the types of wood used (pine and oak). With the use of a board with a sawn pattern, which was superimposed on another, background one, the pattern deepened and became more prominent. The frame was decorated with arrows, turrets, columns, etc. To decorate products, in addition to carving, painting was widely used.

When Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, drove out the last Western Roman emperor in 476, he sent insignia, signs of imperial power, to Constantinople; for the West, this fact meant the end of more than six centuries of Roman rule over Western Europe. Endless wars and disputes over territorial claims inevitably destroyed the classical heritage of the region, and this, in turn, negatively affected all types of art.

Although the empire continued to exist in the east, with its center in Constantinople, its Greek-Hellenistic component was now replaced by the Christian ideals of the Roman rulers. Christianity also determined the character of culture in the West, where the power of the popes increased. Stability was due to the continued life of the Roman Empire in Byzantium, a new flourishing of which began at the end of the 8th century. Old classical aesthetics fused with oriental influences, resulting in a more linear style and a more abstract, geometric decorative character. In Byzantine interiors, mosaics became brighter and more colorful than in the previous Roman interiors, and were used much more often to decorate walls than floors.

Triptych wings with painting on wood. Both of these doors were painted by a master from Flémalle (probably this artist Robert Campin). They represent the customer Heinrich Werl with his patron saint John the Baptist and Saint Barbara. 1438 H.101 cm; w.47 cm (each).

BYZANTINE FURNITURE.

Furniture dealers in Byzantium distinguished between the products of carpenters, who made standard furniture for ordinary consumers, and the products of cabinetmakers, more precisely, reflecting trends in architecture and the aspirations of a proud, elite culture. The shape of the chair with the Egyptian X-shaped frame was preserved, complemented by finishing with images of animal heads and paws, although the wood used was heavier than before, and sometimes even trimmed with metal.

Chairs remained a symbol of power and, as such, were often monumental in both size and status. Sophisticated tables, equipped with a removable reading stand, demonstrate much greater attention to the utilitarian functions of the object. Dining tables were very low, in accordance with the ancient manner of eating, reclining, leaning on one elbow, a practice still followed by many residents of Asia Minor. The most common piece of furniture was the chest. Luxurious pieces included decor in the form of inlays or inserts of colored stones, ivory and precious metals.

Coronation chair. This chair in Westminster Abbey was made for Edward I to house a Scottish relic - a sacred stone taken from the Scots in 1297. Around 1300.

FURNITURE IN THE WEST.

The chest, including the travel trunk, or trunk, was also the most common type of furniture in Western Europe. The basic version of the wooden box consisted of six boards nailed down or even a hollowed out log. Many people often had such a chest among their furnishings. And richer landowners usually owned a dozen chests.

Many lords led a nomadic lifestyle, moving for the sake of constant control over their possessions from place to place. Therefore, most of the furniture was made suitable for transportation. Carpets, wall hangings and pillows were usually taken with them, carried from one house to another. Chests designed for reliable transportation of property had convex lids so that rainwater, and they were rarely decorated, except by covering them with leather. The chests that made up household furniture had more convenient flat lids.

GROWING CONSTRUCTION EXPERIENCE.

As carpenters improved their working skills, the chests became more and more beautiful. In the chest-chest, the first mention of which dates back to XIII century, primitive connections of dovetail-type parts were used, but reinforcement with dowels made them much stronger and more durable than in similar products of the previous time.

Carved chest. This French chest is made of wood walnut and is richly decorated with carvings in the spirit of late, “flaming” Gothic, reproducing the sophisticated masonry on the facades and windows of Gothic cathedrals. End of the 15th century

GOTHIC.

The Gothic style - the dominant aesthetics of the Middle Ages - was understood as the antithesis of the civilized classical world. It was a Norman innovation that fused Carolingian and Burgundian artistic traditions with Islamic elements from Saracen Sicily. Greatest achievement The cathedrals of Trans-Alpine Europe became Gothic art, and elements of this church architecture formed the basis of Gothic furniture design.

The main element of the Gothic style was the pointed arch, which replaced the semicircular Roman arch. This innovation was of an engineering nature: churches could now be wider, since the weight of the ceilings could be distributed over a series of free-standing pillars and ribs connecting them, instead of making massive, thick walls. This architectural structure is also reflected in the openwork masonry of large window openings cathedrals and churches, and its characteristic trifolia and quadrifolium motifs were also well suited to decorating benches and tables. A vertical cabinet was increasingly used to store priestly vestments.

Another innovation of the Gothic period was the sideboard, the name of which (cupboard) comes from its original function: in rich houses it was intended to display valuable silver dishes (cups). Among the English and Flemish masters, regional variations in style included a preference for paneled finishes.

With the exception of Italy, where the Romanesque style remained the dominant fashion, the Gothic style flourished in Europe until the end of the 15th century and remained in use even after the influence of the Renaissance turned northerners to the classical tradition.

MEDIEVAL INTERIORS.

Contrary to popular attitudes towards gothic style as harsh and gloomy, the interiors and furniture of that time were exclusively light and multi-colored. Cabinetmakers usually worked with local species: in England in the northern parts of Europe - oak, in the Alpine region - pine and other conifers, in the Mediterranean - fruit trees. Surviving medieval furniture made from oak always looks very dark due to the patina of time, but freshly treated oak gives a much lighter impression. In addition, many pieces of furniture were brightly painted, including primary colors and gilding. Chests were especially often painted. Although few examples have survived to this day, traces of medieval painting can still be seen on the ceilings and walls of churches.

Church bench made in France. This profiled oak bench-chest has panels and an openwork carved pattern.

RENAISSANCE ITALY.

The figures of the Italian Renaissance realized that they were entering a new modern era, even if only helping to lay its foundations. Leonardo Bruni was the first to present history as a triad consisting of antiquity, modernity and the middle wedged between them, the “dark age”, or the Middle Ages, which reflected a negative attitude towards this era and scientific knowledge, and artistic practice, now focused on the classics.

SPIRIT OF KNOWLEDGE.

IN late XIV century, the influential city-state of Florence emerged from a period of social unrest and adversity associated with the plague, and entered a period of hitherto unknown prosperity. The very special Italian urban culture and especially the republican aspirations of the Florentines became the basis for the formation of the philosophy of civic humanism that fed Renaissance thought. Universities and the merchant class began to re-evaluate the science, philosophy, art and design of ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, and rich Florence became a center of attraction for many artists. They all hoped for orders from merchant houses, eager to demonstrate their success and good taste. The same spirit of scientific knowledge that led to the stunning discoveries of Copernicus, Vesalius and Galileo also directed the development of the arts. Andrea Palladio developed the theory of architectural proportions, based on the study of examples of classical architecture, and Filippo Brunelleschi formulated the laws of linear perspective. Artists abandoned the elongated, stylized figures of medieval painting, moving towards a more accurate depiction of the human body, reinforcing their skills with advances in anatomy.

Majolica plate. The term "majolica" is used to designate characteristically Renaissance ceramics with a white glaze. Tin oxide added to the glaze gives whiteness. This plate shows an artist painting a plate using the same technique. Around 1510

EXPLOSION OF CHARACTERISTICS.

All of the above processes had an inevitable impact on furniture. The townspeople built magnificent town halls and palazzos, filling the new space with pieces of furniture and works of decorative art that reflected their social aspirations. The wealthiest families, such as the Medici in Florence, the Montefeltro in Urbino and the Farnese in Rome, hired the most prominent artists and artisans to create monumental furnishings.

Table made of marble and alabaster. This table was made by Farnese in Rome according to a drawing by the architect Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola (1507 - 1573) H.96 cm; w.381 cm; g.168 cm.

WEDDING CHESTS.

The cassone, or wedding chest, was one of the most prized objects in any home, and no expense was spared in decorating it. The sides were often covered with painted or gilded gesso, embedded in relief designs or entirely sculpted, depicting heroes and subjects of classical antiquity. In Italy, the best artists and sculptors were invited to decorate such chests, and those examples that have survived to this day reveal a richness of decor that can only be equaled religious art that era.

DECORATIVE CREATIVITY.

The furniture, which was often made of walnut or willow, was decorated with marquetry and inlays of ivory, stone or precious woods such as ebony, as well as elaborate carvings, often with grotesques. Ornament with grotesques (the word comes from the Italian grottesco) played the role of a playful game with shifting boundaries between the natural world and the human world. The seat, carved in the shape of an open shell shell, is both amusing and thought-provoking. Decorative furniture was placed in the same decorative interiors, where the walls were sometimes boldly conceived trompe l’oeil (trompe loeil), which looked either like slightly open cabinet doors or like windows with opening landscape views.

Study of the Duke of Urbino in the Urbino Palace. The walls of the reconstructed office are decorated wood panels with inlay from different species - walnut, birch, rosewood, oak and fruit trees with a walnut wood base. The decoys depict a cabinet with a scientist's tools.

Gqbello chair. This chair, made in 15th century Florence, is made of walnut with carvings and inlay. 1489 - 1491

INFLUENCE OF ARCHITECTURE.

The art of the Renaissance, like the Gothic style in the Middle Ages, was determined by the development of architecture. The introduction of columns, a fundamental element of a Greek or Roman building, now became characteristic of furniture design. Particularly prized were the caryatids - column-like supports depicting female figures. The chair, a traditional expression of social status and power, survived the process of democracy during the Renaissance, becoming a familiar attribute of domestic life. The lectern, or X-framed chair, made from two pairs of short bars intersecting at a central point and connected by a crossbar, became widespread. The most lavish examples were covered with a thin layer of silver or upholstered in velvet, but most chairs were more modest objects. The original form of the lectern was borrowed from antiquity, and the leather seat, stretched between two X-frames, was used in Renaissance Italy as often as in ancient Greece. The wall chair, called sgabello, was originally a stool with an octagonal seat and a long decorative backrest. Sometimes this backrest could be removed, turning the chair into a stool.

RENAISSANCE EUROPE.

Humanistic scholarship, combined with the patronage of the powerful, contributed to the establishment of the ideals of the Renaissance, already taking root south of the Alps, in France and Northern Europe. France's claims to the Kingdom of Naples and its influence on other Italian states led to a series of military campaigns and the taking of part of the peninsula under French control. This increased intellectual and artistic exchange between France and the centers of Renaissance culture in Italy, most notably Florence and Rome.

THE RENAISSANCE COMES TO FRANCE.

Long papal rule in the Avignon enclave and, following the transfer of the papacy back to Rome, ensured strong Italian influence in France. Many of the artists who arrived to carry out a large commission, frescoes of the papal palace in Avignon, came from Siena. This tradition was enthusiastically continued by Francis I when he invited Italian celebrities such as Benvenuto Cellini, Francesco Primaticcio and Nicolo del Abbate to decorate the interiors of the new castle at Fontainebleau.

The long-term work of the Italians in this residence ensured the formation of an entire art school, and then the Fontainebleau style began to spread throughout Trans-Alpine Europe. It was a specifically French interpretation of Italian mannerism.

Gallery of Francis I at Fontainebleau Castle. The gallery is decorated with 12 fresco compositions placed in sculptural frames; Carved walnut panels run underneath. This is the most luxurious of such galleries in French castles; with her the style of Italian mannerism came to France. Around 1533 - 1540

The Chateau de Chambord, built by Francis I in the Loire Valley, is perhaps best example Renaissance architecture in France. French Renaissance furniture developed mainly in the context of architectural processes. Jacques Andruet du Cersault published works that included drawings of furniture. Many of his engravings representing architectural details were also adapted for decorative use in furniture. He drew inspiration from antiquity, particularly fascinated by acanthus leaves, feathers and heraldry motifs. Exotic and fantastic animals were favorite themes among the masters decorative carving. Walnut replaced oak, becoming the main wood for furniture makers.

Chateau de Chambord, built between 1519 and 1547. This is one of the most beautiful creations of Renaissance architecture in France.

GERMAN-SPEAKING COUNTRIES.

The ideals of the Italian Renaissance first reached German-speaking countries through artists like Albrecht Dürer, who visited Italy twice. However, furniture design was more directly influenced by the work of the "small masters" or Kleinmeister, who were based in Nuremberg, Westphalia and the Netherlands and were engaged in ornamentation. They made engravings on metal or wood with patterns that reworked motifs from classical antiquity and Italian designs. These patterns were composed of continuous ribbons of floral motifs, birds, animals, nudes, flowerpots and trophies.

However, the existence of powerful guilds in cities such as Berlin meant that the introduction of new types of furniture was delayed due to the fact that the drawings of the established pattern, against which the applicant's suitability for the title of master was checked, were rarely changed. The cities of Nuremberg and Augsburg, where there were no guilds, became famous for their cabinetmakers, such as Peter Flötner and Lorenz Stöhr, who published woodcuts of intarsia designs: similarly decorated panels were popular in Augsburg.

NEW STYLES.

From a design point of view, the development of Renaissance furniture can be seen as an evolution of the medieval throne chair, which usually had a chest-like base, into a more easy option, with supports around the bottom bar. Open armrests have become more popular, reflecting the trend towards lighter furniture.

The French caquetoire chair was designed in response to changing tastes, with a wide, trapezoidal seat to accommodate the free-flowing folds of ladies' dresses. Upholstery was becoming more common, although most chairs and benches still had hard, wooden surfaces.

Caquetoire, or "chat chair". This chair, made of walnut, has a sturdy X-shaped frame with a rectangular backrest and armrests finished in scrollwork. The seat is made of leather. XVI century H.85 cm; w.50 cm; g.60 cm.

New types of cabinet furniture also developed, such as kitchen cabinet, spun off from a medieval sideboard; it was made from various combinations of supports, shelves and closed cabinets with doors. The cabinet, which in medieval Europe was used to store and display a silver dish, became more luxurious. Renaissance family treasures typically included Jewelry and various artistic trinkets; to store them securely required a lot small boxes. These boxes were often lined with fabric on the inside to protect the contents. In southern Germany, sideboards, originally created by stacking one drawer on top of another, have reached more beneficial use its capacity, in the absence of a frieze separating the upper and lower sections, although the old form remained popular after 1600.

Long dining tables They were also made with a simple tabletop mounted on trestles, as was done in the Middle Ages. In rich houses there was no strict separation dining area, so the tables were moved to another place as necessary.

Buffet based on Peter Flötner's model. This massive, carefully carved two-piece paneled sideboard is made in Southern Germany and has a distinctly architectural appearance.

Romantics who dream of traveling back in time have come to a rather original solution: given the fact that it is unrealistic to physically find yourself in medieval Europe, nothing prevents you from stylizing your own apartment as a castle. Today, the medieval style in kitchen interiors is very popular.

Medieval spirit

An ancient European kitchen is characterized by the presence of an impressive, no less large stove, which simultaneously plays the role of a hearth, as well as simple pieces of furniture that are not interconnected. A unique medieval style in one of the “strategically important” rooms is created with the help of interesting ornaments, lancet windows, arches and, of course, colored stained glass. At the same time, it is important to remember to comply with the requirements of modern design.

Thanks to the implementation interesting elements decor, the kitchen seems not only cozy, but also reliable. A key feature of the medieval style is the presence of handcrafted “ingredients” and genuine craftsmanship.

The main elements of the style include:

1. Floors and walls made of stone.
2. Items of utensils and accessories made of copper or tin.
3. The presence of stained glass and mosaics.
4. Brick walls.
5. Rich, deep colors.
6. The presence of modern kitchen appliances, skillfully “hidden” behind the doors of cabinets made of dark wood.

Ceiling

Medieval style is ideal for a room with a high ceiling, which can easily be transformed into a vaulted masterpiece. In the old days, the ceilings of castle kitchens were equipped with thick wooden beams. This element is still present today, and it is customary to “ennoble” the “ribs” of frame arches with the help of carved parts. The ornament is selected taking into account the taste preferences of the customer and the characteristics of the kitchen.

An equally important requirement for the medieval style is the presence large quantity light sources. To create the appropriate environment, it is recommended to pay attention to the large one.

Color spectrum

The idea of ​​the Middle Ages as an exclusively dark period has no basis. Designers living several centuries ago, when working on the design of a kitchen space, preferred shades of deep, rich colors. Combinations of shades were especially held in high esteem:

• red;
• blue;
• amber.

If you have a penchant for calm and warm tones, then the best solution would be to “introduce” ash colors into the kitchen. It is important to observe the natural contrast of oppositional natural colors. Thus, hand-forged elements and dark wood look impressive against the light background of the ceiling and walls.

When decorating a kitchen, the following types of natural stone are widely used:

• granite;
• marble;
• limestone;
• travertine.

A “zest” will appear in the design if natural stone is combined with furniture made of solid walnut and with cherry or cherry floors.

Walls and floors

The main difference from the kitchen in modern style in the design of the castle premises is the following:

• walls made of brick or stone can be decorated with characteristic paintings a la the work of the great Michelangelo;
• in the area of ​​the stove and sink, you can create elegant arched windows or openings using decorative stone;
• The ideal solution for a “castle” style would be to install floors made of ceramic tiles or natural stone.

You can also use dark or light wallpaper with a specific pattern. Bright, flashy colors should be avoided.

Accessories

Well, what is the Middle Ages without fancy candlesticks, figurines and figured candles? These are precisely the very details that contribute to the creation of an ancient atmosphere and are an interesting “highlight” of the room.

In addition, such characteristic elements as:

1. Handles on entrance and furniture doors made of copper or bronze.
2. Faucets made of copper or brass.
3. Decorative grilles and lamps.

Medieval textiles

An excellent solution for a “castle” kitchen would be to introduce fabrics in rich, rich colors. The presence of stripes or a stylish floral print is welcome.

In case you are interested floral decor, then the choice should be made not on delicate roses, but on the “children of the sun”, more characteristic of these difficult and harsh times - sunflowers.

For kitchen curtains, heavy velvet is a great choice.

Furniture

The main criterion for furniture is its quality. Considering that the medieval style is characterized not only by aspiration upward, but also by the presence of strict lines and even some roughness, kitchen tables should be tall and their legs long. No less tall “long-legged” chairs, reminiscent of a throne, will give the room a unique charm.

It is important that in a medieval kitchen there is a place for the following pieces of furniture:

• dressing rooms (open buffets);
• cabinets;
• shop windows;
• chairs with high backs and special footrests.

Characteristic of that time, carved drawings on furniture, carrying a certain secret meaning, will also be original solution. The color of the furniture should be close to natural.

Conclusion

Like, a medieval room requires the presence of specific decorative elements. Colorful ceramics and pretty bowls made from quality glass are able not only to create comfort, but also to bring a bit of a truly medieval atmosphere.