Fine means of expressive language are artistic and speech phenomena that create the verbal imagery of the narrative: tropes, various forms of instrumentation and rhythmic and intonation organization of the text, figures.
In the center are examples of the use of visual means of the Russian language.
Vocabulary
Trails– a figure of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative meaning. Paths are based on internal rapprochement, comparison of two phenomena, one of which explains the other.
Metaphor- a hidden comparison of one object or phenomenon with another based on similarity of characteristics.
(p) “The horse is galloping, there is a lot of space,
The snow is falling and the shawl is laying down"
Comparison- comparison of one object with another based on their similarity.
(p) “Anchar, like a formidable sentry,
Stands alone in the entire Universe"
Personification- a type of metaphor, the transfer of human qualities to inanimate objects, phenomena, animals, endowing them with thoughts with speech.
(p) “The sleepy birch trees smiled,
Silk braids disheveled"
Hyperbola- exaggeration.
(p) “A yawn tears wider than the Gulf of Mexico”
Metonymy- replacing the direct name of an object or phenomenon with another that has a causal connection with the first.
(p) “Farewell, unwashed Russia,
Country of slaves, country of masters..."
Periphrase– similar to metonymy, often used as a characteristic.
(p) “Kisa, we will still see the sky in diamonds” (we will get rich)
Irony– one of the ways of expressing the author’s position, the author’s skeptical, mocking attitude towards the depicted.
Allegory– the embodiment of an abstract concept, phenomenon or idea in a specific image.
(p) In Krylov’s fable “Dragonfly” is an allegory of frivolity.
Litotes– an understatement.
(p) “... in big mittens, and he’s as small as a fingernail!”
Sarcasm- a type of comic, a way of demonstrating the author’s position in a work, caustic ridicule.
(p) “I thank you for everything:
For the secret torment of passions... the poison of kisses...
For everything I was deceived by"
Grotesque– a combination of contrasting, fantastic and real. Widely used for satirical purposes.
(p) In Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita,” the author used the grotesque, where the funny is inseparable from the terrible, in a performance staged by Woland in a variety show.
Epithet– a figurative definition that emotionally characterizes an object or phenomenon.
(p) “The Rhine lay before us all silver...”
Oxymoron- a stylistic figure, a combination of opposite in meaning, contrasting words that create an unexpected image.
(p) “heat of cold numbers”, “sweet poison”, “Living corpse”, “Dead souls”.
Stylistic figures
Rhetorical exclamation- the construction of speech, in which a particular concept is affirmed in the form of an exclamation, in a heightened emotional form.
(p) “Yes, it’s just witchcraft!”
A rhetorical question- a question that does not require an answer.
(p) “What summer, what summer?”
Rhetorical appeal- an appeal that is conditional in nature, imparting the necessary intonation to poetic speech.
Stanza ring– sound repetition located at the beginning and at the end of a given verbal unit - lines, stanzas, etc.
(p) “The darkness gently closed”; " Thunder skies and guns thunder"
Multi-Union- such a construction of a sentence when all or almost all homogeneous members are interconnected by the same conjunction
Asyndeton- omission of unions between homogeneous members, giving thinness. speech compactness, dynamism.
Ellipsis- an omission in speech of some easily implied word, part of a sentence.
Parallelism– concomitance of parallel phenomena, actions, parallelism.
Epiphora– repetition of a word or combination of words. Identical endings of adjacent poetic lines.
(p) “Baby, we are all a bit of a horse!
Each of us is a horse in our own way...”
Anaphora- unity of beginning, repetition of the same consonances, words, phrases at the beginning of several poetic lines or in a prose phrase.
(p) “If you love, it’s crazy,
If you threaten, it’s not a joke..."
Inversion- a deliberate change in the order of words in a sentence, which gives the phrase special expressiveness.
(p) “Not the wind, blowing from above,
Touched the sheets on the moonlit night..."
Gradation– the use of means of artistic expression that consistently strengthen or weaken the image.
(p) “I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry...”
Antithesis– opposition.
(p) “They came together: water and stone,
Poems and prose, ice and fire..."
Synecdoche– transfer of meaning based on the convergence of the part and the whole, the use of singular parts. instead of plural
(p) “And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced...”
Assonance– repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in verse,
(p) “my son grew up on nights without a smile”
Alliteration– repetition or consonance of vowels
(p) “Where the grove of neighing guns neighs”
Refrain– exactly repeated verses of the text (usually its last lines)
Reminiscence – in a work of art (mainly poetic) certain features inspired by the involuntary or deliberate borrowing of images or rhythmic-syntactic moves from another work (someone else’s, sometimes one’s own).
(p) “I have experienced a lot and many”
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Visual and expressive means of language
Trails
Trope - (Greek "turn")figure of speech in which a word or expressionused figuratively in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness.
The trope is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem close to our consciousness in some respect.
The most common types of trails:allegory, hyperbole, irony, litotes, metaphor, metonymy, personification, periphrasis, synecdoche, comparison, epithet.
Hyperbole - a means of artistic representation based on exaggeration.
This is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, or significance of any object or phenomenon.
The eyes are huge, like spotlights.
(V. Mayakovsky)
The sunset glowed with a hundred and forty suns...
(V. Mayakovsky)
Grotesque - Extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character.
Mayor with stuffed head
(from Saltykov-Shchedrin)
Irony - a trope consisting of using a word or expression in the opposite sense to its literal meaning for the purpose of ridicule.
Mockery , containing an assessment of what is ridiculed.
A sign of irony is double meaning , where the truth will not be directly expressed, but its opposite, implied.
Why, smart one, are you delirious, head?
(I. Krylov.)
(to a donkey)
Litotes - a means of artistic representation based on understatement (in
opposite of hyperbole)
A figurative expression containinggross understatementsize, strength, meaning of any object, phenomenon.
The waist is no thicker than a bottle neck.
(N. Gogol.)
Metaphor (extended metaphor) -Greek (transfer) - the use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the similarity in some respect of two objects or phenomena.
Metaphor - hidden comparison.
Simple metaphor:
The bow of a ship, the leg of a table, the dawn of life, the sound of waves,
a hail of bullets, the sunset is burning, speech is flowing
(the metaphor is based on the convergence of objects, phenomena according to one sign)
Metonymy - (Greek renaming).Using the name of one item instead of the name of another item based on an external or internal connection between them.
The type of trail in whichwords are brought together by the contiguity of the concepts they denote. A phenomenon or object is depicted using other words or concepts. For example, the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity. Many examples:transfer from a vessel to its contents, from a person to his clothes, from a populated area to residents, from an organization to participants, from an author to works.
If not on silver, I ate on gold.
(Griboyedov)
Well, eat another plate, my dear!
(Krylov)
Personification - a trope consisting ofattribution to inanimateobjects of signs and properties of living things creatures
Such an image of inanimate objects in which theyendowed with the properties of living beings - the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel
What are you howling about, night wind,
Why are you complaining so madly?
(F. Tyutchev.)
Paraphrase - The expression beingdescriptively conveying the meaning of another expression or word.
One of the paths in whichthe name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its characteristics,the most characteristic, enhancing the figurativeness of speech.
King of beasts (instead of lion)
Foggy Albion (instead of "England")
Creator of Macbeth (Shakespeare)
Synecdoche - A type of metonymy consisting oftransferring the meaning of one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them: part instead of whole; whole in the meaning of part; singular in the meaning of general; replacing a number with a set; replacement of a specific concept with a generic one.
- Part instead of the whole.
All flags will come to visit us (meaning “ships”) (A. Pushkin);
Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.
- Generic name instead of specific name.
Well, sit down, it’s shining. (V. Mayakovsky) (instead of “sun”)
- Species name instead of generic name.
Most of all, take care of the penny. (N.V. Gogol) (meaning “money”)
- Singular instead of plural
And you could hear how the Frenchman rejoiced until dawn. (M.Yu. Lermontov)
Comparison - a trope consisting oflikening one object to anotherbased on what they have in common. Reception based oncomparison of a phenomenon orconcepts with another phenomenon.
Fragile ice on a chilly river
It's like melting sugar lying there.
(I. Nekrasov)
The comparison is expressed:
- Instrumental case
- Comparative form of an adjective or adverb
- Turnovers with comparative unions
- Lexically (using the words similar, similar, etc.)
Epithet – figurative definition, a word that defines an object and emphasizes its properties.
With an expanded interpretationcalled an epithetnot just an adjective,
qualifying noun, but also a noun – application, and
adverb ,metaphorically defining the verb.
Frost is the governor, the tramp is the wind, the old man is the ocean;
The Petrel soars proudly (M. Gorky)
Petrograd lived intensely in these January nights,
excited, angry, furious. (A. Tolstoy)
Constant epithet - Epithet, often found in folk poetry, passing from one work to another.
The sea is blue, the field is clear, the sun is red, the clouds are black;
good fellow, the maiden is red, the grass is green...
Figures of speech
Anaphora - Repetition words or phrases at first sentences, poetic lines, stanzas, prose passages.
Gr bridges demolished by oza,
Gr both from the washed out cemetery.
Antithesis - Stylistic reception of contrast, oppositionsphenomena and concepts. Often based on usage Antonimov.
And the new so denies the old!..
It ages before our eyes!
Already shorter than the skirt. It's already longer! The leaders are younger.
Gradation - (graduality ) - a stylistic means that allows you to recreate events and actions, thoughts and feelings in the process, in development,ascending or descending.
Ascending gradation increasing significance.
I came, I saw, I conquered.
Julius Caesar
Gradation descending- arrangement of words in order decreasing value.
I swear to the wounds of Leningrad,
The first devastated hearths;
I won’t break, I won’t waver, I won’t get tired,
I will not forgive my enemies a single grain.
O. Berggolts.
Inversion - (permutation) stylistic figure consisting of violation general grammaticalsequences speech.
The most advantageous position is that member of the sentence that is placed at the beginning (unless this place is not usual for it) or, conversely, is moved to the end of the sentence, especially if something new is reported at the absolute end of the sentence.
Pure chance helped them. (subject inverted)
Lexical repetition– deliberate repetition of the same word.
Repeat words:
- to designate a large number of objects and phenomena.
Behind those villages are forests, forests, forests.
- to enhance a characteristic, degree of quality or action.
Here is a dark, dark garden.
- to indicate the duration of action.
I was waiting for winter, nature was waiting.
A.S. Pushkin.
Oxymoron - stylistic figure, consisting of connection of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another.
Resonant silence
Bitter joy.
Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal -Techniques used to enhance the expressiveness of speech. A rhetorical question is not asked with the aim of obtaining an answer, and for
Techniques used to enhance the expressiveness of speech. A rhetorical question is asked not for the purpose of obtaining an answer, but foremotional impact on the reader.
Where are you galloping, proud horse?
And where will you put your hooves?
(A. Pushkin.)
Rhetorical appeal– a stylistic figure consisting in the fact that the statement is addressed to an inanimate object, an abstract concept, an absent person, thereby enhancing the expressiveness of speech.
Syntactic parallelism -Same syntactic structure(same arrangement of similar parts of a sentence) adjacent sentences or segments of speech.
It’s not a miracle that sparkles above us,
It’s not the poles of fiery brilliance...
(N. Tikhonov)
Default - turn of phrase which means thatthe author does not fully express the idea, leaving the reader(to the listener) guess for yourselfwhat exactly is left unsaid, reflect , what will be discussed in the suddenly interrupted statement.
But listen: if I owe you...
I own a dagger
I was born near the Caucasus.
(A.S. Pushkin.)
Ellipsis - figure of poetic syntax based onomission of one of the sentence members, easily restored in a given context or situation by meaning.
There are curious people in all the windows, boys on the roofs.
(A. Tolstoy)
It is used as a stylistic figure to give the statement dynamism, intonation of lively speech, and artistic expressiveness.
Instead of bread there is a stone, instead of teaching there is a mallet.
(M.E. Saltykov - Shchedrin)
Epiphora - A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora;repetition at the end of poetic lines of wordsor phrases.
I would like to know why I am a titular councilor?
Why titular adviser?
(N.V.Gogol)
Sound recording - a technique of enhancing the imagery of a text by constructing phrases and lines in such a way that would correspond to the reproduced picture.
For three days I could hear how on a boring, long road
They tapped the joints: east, east, east...
(P. Antokolsky reproduces the sound of carriage wheels.)
Onomatopoeia - imitation using the sounds of languagesounds of living and inanimate nature.
When the mazurka thunder roared...
(A. Pushkin)
Trails
Tropes are a word or expression used figuratively.
Functions of tropes:
1. Create an artistic image.
2. Give a more accurate description of the object, phenomenon, action.
3. Convey the author’s assessment of the depicted phenomena
2. Decorate the speech, make it brighter, more imaginative.
Epithet- this is a word that defines an object or action and emphasizes some characteristic property or quality in them.
And the waves of the sea beat against the stone with a sad roar. (M. Gorky) Moroz the governor patrols his domain. (A. Nekrasov). Come on, sing us a song, cheerful wind. (Lebedev-Kumach)
Comparison- comparison of two phenomena in order to clarify one of them with the help of the other.
Snezhnaya dust in a column standing in the air– comparison is expressed in the instrumental case. However, these were more like caricatures, than portraits
(Turgenev). Below him is Kazbek, like the face of a diamond, shone with eternal snows(Lermontov) – comparative turnover. Her love for her son was like madness
(Gorky) – comparison is expressed lexically (using the words “similar”, “similar”) I lived quietly, I will die quietly, how in due time the leaf from this bush will dry out and fall off.
(I. Bunin) – comparison is expressed by a subordinate clause with the meaning of comparison. “Not bream, but piglets
, says our owner, “but they don’t bite.”(I. Severyanin) – negative comparison.
Metaphor is a word or expression that is used figuratively based on the similarity in some respect of two objects or phenomena.
Howl of the wind, high prices, low deeds, bitter truth, sea of flowers, sunset gold.
People domesticated animals only in the dawn of human culture.
(Prishvin).
Metonymy is a word or expression that is used figuratively on the basis of an external or internal connection between two objects or phenomena.
I ate three plates. (Krylov) - not the plates themselves, but what was in them. The whole field gasped. (Pushkin) - not the field itself, but the people who were there.
Synecdoche– a type of metonymy based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them.
1) Everything is asleep - man, beast, and bird.(Gogol) - the singular is used instead of the plural.
2) We all look at Napoleons(Pushkin) – plural instead of singular.
3) Do you need anything?- In the roof for my family. (Herzen) – part instead of the whole.
4) Most of all, save a penny(Gogol) – a specific name instead of a generic name, “kopek” instead of “money”.
Hyperbola– a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of size, strength, meaning, etc. any phenomenon. At one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed(Mayakovsky)
Litotes- a trope opposite to hyperbole and consisting in an obviously implausible, exorbitant understatement of properties, qualities, attributes, sizes, strength, meaning, etc. any phenomenon.
Tom Thumb; two steps from here. You have to bow your head below the thin piece of grass...(Nekrasov); Your Pomeranian, your lovely Pomeranian, is no bigger than a thimble. (Griboyedov).
Allegory(from the Greek allegoria - allegory) – the depiction of abstract concepts in concrete images. For example, cunning is depicted in the form of a fox, stupidity and stubbornness - in the form of a donkey. Many of I.A.’s fables are based on an expanded allegory. Krylova. Some allegories are of a general linguistic nature: May there always be sunshine (may happiness remain constant).
Irony- allegorical words in which various phenomena of life are identified not by contiguity or similarity, but by their contrast. The word "irony" is used to denote a mocking attitude towards life. Calling it on purpose. As if feignedly, small by big, stupid by smart, ugly by beautiful, people express their disdainful, mocking attitude towards them.
Oh, what a big man is coming!(about the child). Welcome to my palace(about a small room). Hardly anyone would be flattered by such beauties u (about an ugly woman).
Personification- such an image of inanimate or abstract objects in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings - the gift of speech, the ability to think and speak, to feel.
Thunder muttered sleepily(Paustovsky). Silent sadness will be consoled, and playful joy will reflect(Pushkin).
Periphrase(or periphrasis) - a turnover consisting of replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their characteristic features. Periphrasis is roundabout speech.
Author of "A Hero of Our Time"(instead of M.Yu. Lermontov). King of beasts(instead of lion). Kholmogory man= Lomonosov. Queen of the Night=moon. Foggy Albion= England. North Venice= St. Petersburg.
Stylistic figures
Stylistic figures are figures of speech that perform the function of enhancing expressiveness.
Anaphora (single beginning) is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of the passages that make up the statement.
I love
you, Peter's creation,
I love
your strict, slender appearance.(A.S. Pushkin)
Epiphora- placing the same words or phrases at the end of adjacent verses, or stanzas, or prose paragraphs:
I would like to know why I am a titular councilor? Why titular adviser?(Gogol). Flows unabated rain, languid rain
(V.Bryusov)
Antithesis– a pronounced opposition of concepts or phenomena. Antithesis contrasts different objects
The houses are new, but the prejudices are old.(A. Griboyedov).
Oxymoron– a combination of words that are directly opposite in meaning in order to show the inconsistency and complexity of a situation, phenomenon, or object. An oxymoron attributes opposite qualities to one object or phenomenon.
Eat joyful melancholy in the red of dawn.(S. Yesenin). It's arrived eternal moment
. (A. Blok). Brazenly modest
wild look
.
(Block) I celebrated the New Year alone. I'm rich, was poor
. (M. Tsvetaeva) He's coming, saint and sinner, Russian miracle man!
(Tvardovsky). Huge autumn, old and young, in the frantic blue glow of the window.(A. Voznesensky)
Parallelism- this is the same syntactic construction of neighboring sentences or segments of speech.
Young people are treasured everywhere, old people are honored everywhere.(Lebedev-Kumach).
To be able to speak is an art. Listening is a culture.(D. Likhachev)
Gradation- this is a stylistic figure consisting of such an arrangement of words in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (ascending gradation) or decreasing meaning, due to which an increase or decrease in the impression they make is created.
A) I do not regret, do not call, do not cry
,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.(S. Yesenin).
IN senate I'll give it to you ministers, sovereign»
(A. Griboyedov). "Not hour, Not day, Not year will leave"(Baratynsky). Look what a house - big, huge, huge, really grandiose
!
– increases, intonation-semantic tension intensifies – ascending gradation.
B) "Not a god, not a king, and not a hero"- words are arranged in order of weakening their emotional and semantic significance - descending gradation.
Inversion- this is the arrangement of the members of a sentence in a special order, violating the usual, so-called direct order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech. We can talk about inversion when stylistic goals are set with its use - increasing the expressiveness of speech.
Amazing
our people! hand He gave it to me as a farewell.
Ellipsis- this is a stylistic figure that consists in omitting some implied member of the sentence. The use of ellipsis (incomplete sentences) gives the statement dynamism, intonation of lively speech, and artistic expressiveness.
We turned villages into ashes, cities into dust, swords into sickles and plows(Zhukovsky)
The officer - with a pistol, Terkin - with a soft bayonet.(Tvardovsky)
Default is a turn of phrase in which the author deliberately does not fully express a thought, leaving the reader (or listener) to guess what is unspoken.
No, I wanted... maybe you... I thought
It's time for the baron to die. ( Pushkin)
Rhetorical appeal- this is a stylistic figure consisting of an emphasized appeal to someone or something to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Rhetorical appeals serve not so much to name the addressee of speech, but rather to express an attitude towards a particular object, characterize it, and enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Flowers, love, village, idleness, field!
I am devoted to you with my soul(Pushkin).
A rhetorical question- this is a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that a question is posed not with the goal of getting an answer, but in order to attract the attention of the reader or listener to a particular phenomenon.
Do you know Ukrainian night?
Oh, you don’t know Ukrainian night!(Gogol)
Multi-Union– a stylistic figure consisting of the deliberate use of repeated conjunctions and intonation emphasizing the members of a sentence connected by conjunctions to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
A thin rain fell And to the forests, And to the fields, And on the wide Dnieper. ( Gogol)
Houses were burning at night, And the wind was blowing And black bodies on the gallows swayed in the wind, And crows screamed above them(Kuprin)
Asyndeton- a stylistic figure consisting of the deliberate omission of connecting conjunctions between members of a sentence or between sentences: the absence of conjunctions gives the statement speed, saturation of impressions within the overall picture.
Swede, Russian - stabbing, chopping, cutting, drumming, clicks, grinding, thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning...(Pushkin)
*TROPE is a figure of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative meaning. The trope is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem close to us in some respect.
TYPES OF TRAILS:
EPITHET – figurative (artistic definition of an object; metaphorical adjective, which contains an apt sign of comparison ( swan snow - snow is white, soft and light, like swan's down). Answers the questions: which one(s), what are they? :
And the waves of the sea sad they fought against the stones with a roar. (M.G.);
Between the clouds and the sea proudly(nar.) The Petrel soars. (M.G.) ;
Freezing- voivode(noun) goes around his possessions on patrol. (N.) ;
...I like yours farewell beauty. (P.) ;
Along the high and long fence
Extra roses flowers hanging towards us.
A. Blok
In folk poetry, constant epithets are used: a pillared path, a blue sea, a beautiful maiden, a good fellow, stingray pearls, mother of earth, a clean field, black clouds.
Sometimes the role of an epithet is played by epithet pronouns expressing the superlative degree of a state:
She Tarquinia with a flourish Music rang in the garden
Slaps, yes, yes! Such unspeakable grief.
Slap in the face but what kind! A. Akhmatova
A. Pushkin, “Count Nulin”
COMPARISON – depiction of one phenomenon by comparing it with another.
There are 2 components in the comparison:
1) what is being compared;
2) what it is compared to.
Comparison is expressed using words like, exactly, as if or may indicate similarity ( look like…) :
Anchar, like a menacing sentry, stands - alone in the whole universe. (P.)
snow dust pillar stands in the air.
You the cutest of all, the dearest of all, Russian, loamy, hard soil.
Below him is Kazbek, like the edge of a diamond, shone with eternal snow. (L.)
Her love for her son was like madness.(M.G.)
The crest of the shaft, spread out by the ship's keel, resembled giant bird wings.(A. Green)
On the eyes of a cautious cat Then I saw a black swarm of demons,
Similar your eyes. Like from afar ant gang…
A. Akhmatova A. Pushkin
Wet sparrow
Lilac branch!
B. Pasternak
An indefinite comparison expressing a superlative state:
And when the moon shines at night,
When it shines... God knows how!
I walk with my head hanging down,
Down the street to a familiar pub.
S. Yesenin
The comparison can be expanded. It reveals several signs of one phenomenon or characteristics of a whole group of phenomena:
“The men here, as everywhere else, were of two kinds: some thin, who all hovered around the ladies; some of them were of such a type that it was difficult to distinguish them from those from St. Petersburg, they also had very deliberately and tastefully combed sideburns or simply beautiful, very smoothly shaven oval faces, they also sat casually next to the ladies, and they also spoke French and they made the ladies laugh just like in St. Petersburg. Another class of men were fat or the same as Chichikov, that is, not too fat, but not thin either.” (G.)
Negative comparisons are often found in Russian folklore and its literary stylizations, in ancient Russian literature:
It’s not the wind that bends the branch,
It’s not the oak tree that makes noise, -
Then my heart groans
How an autumn leaf trembles...
(S.N. Stromilov)
METAPHOR – 1) is a word or expression that is used in a figurative meaning based on the similarity in any respect of two objects or phenomena; 2) this is a hidden comparison, in which only what is being compared is present. What is compared is only implied. Metaphor in various forms is present in every poetic trope. Our everyday speech is replete with metaphors: he lost his head, the trading network, he’s dizzy, it’s raining. Poetic metaphor differs from familiar everyday metaphor in its freshness and novelty. The reader is required to be able to understand and feel the image being created:
Hangs over grandma's hut edge of bread. (month) ;
Bee from cells the waxen one flies beyond the distance of the field. (P.) (cell - “beehive”);
You have humbled yourself, my spring high-flown dreams. (P.) (spring - “youth”);
People domesticated animals only in dawn human culture. (Priv.) (dawn - “beginning”).
If a metaphorical expression is revealed over a large segment or an entire poem, then such a metaphor is called an extended metaphor. This technique was used by M. Lermontov in the poem “The Cup of Life”, where the popular, almost everyday metaphor of “drinking the cup of life” is taken as a basis:
We drink from the cup of existence
With closed eyes,
Golden edges wetted
With your own tears;
When before death out of sight
The string falls off
And everything that deceived us
Disappears with the closure -
Then we see that it is empty
There was a golden cup
That there was a drink in it is a dream
And that she is not ours!
Expressions such as " iron verse", "gray morning", "silk eyelashes", simultaneously serve as epithets and metaphors and are called metaphorical epithets. In a metaphor, it is impossible to separate the definition from the word being defined: the meaning disappears.
PERSONIFICATION is the transfer of human properties to animals, inanimate objects, natural phenomena and abstract concepts: I will whistle, and obediently, timidly will creep in bloody villainy, and a hand will to me lick, and in the eyes look, in them is a sign of my reading of my will. (P.) ; Will be consoled silent sadness, and frisky joy will reflect…(P.)
Personification is a special type of metaphor:
Smiled sleepy birches,
Silk braids were disheveled.
S. Yesenin
METONYMY is a word or expression that is used in a figurative meaning based on an external or internal connection between two objects or phenomena. This connection could be:
1) between content and containing: I three plates ate. (Kr.) ;
I read it with pleasure Apuleius ,
A Cicero do not read.
A. Pushkin
3) between an action and the instrument of this action: He doomed their villages and fields for a violent raid swords and fires. (P.) ;
4) between the object and the material from which the object is made: No. She silver- on gold ate (Gr.) ;
5) between a place and people located in this place: All field gasped. (P.)
Metonymy differs from metaphor in that metaphor is paraphrased into comparison using auxiliary words “as if”, “like”, “like”, etc. This cannot be done with metonymy.
SYNECDOCHE is a type of metonymy based on replacing more with less or, conversely, less with more. Typically used in synecdoche:
1) singular instead of plural: Everything is asleep - and Human, And beast, And bird.(G.) ; From here we will threaten Swede…(P.) ;
and ruble
didn't accumulate lines.
V. Mayakovsky
2) plural instead of singular: We all look at Napoleons. (P.) ;
3) part instead of the whole: “Do you need anything?” - "IN roof for my family." (Hertz.) ;
So that you can see at your feet Say: will it be soon? Warsaw(i.e. Poland)
Uniform, And spurs, And mustache! Will the proud man prescribe his own law?
M. Lermontov A. Pushkin
4) generic name instead of specific name: Well, sit down, light. (M.; instead of the sun);
5)specific name instead of generic name: Above all, take care a penny. (G.; instead of money).
IRONY is the use of a word or expression in the opposite sense to the literal (direct) for the purpose of ridicule: Otkole, smart, you're delusional, head? - The Fox, having met the Donkey, asked him. (Kr.)
The opposite meaning can be given to a significant context, as well as to an entire work, as in M. Lermontov’s poem “Gratitude”:
For everything, for everything I thank you:
For the secret torment of passions,
For the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss,
For the revenge of enemies and slander of friends;
For the heat of the soul, wasted in the desert,
For everything I was deceived in life...
Just arrange it so that from now on you
It didn’t take me long to thank you.
SARCASM is particularly caustic and caustic irony.
About words, comments, etc. , as well as about the face, gaze, smile, etc. :
Ironic - containing, expressing a subtle, hidden smile;
Sarcastic – inclusive. expressing poisonous, evil ridicule;
Sardonic - mockingly mocking, maliciously sarcastic.
ALLEGORY is an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a specific life image: scales - justice, cross - faith, anchor - hope, heart - love. Allegory is often used in fables and fairy tales, where animals, objects, and natural phenomena act as carriers of human properties: cunning is the fox, greed and anger are the wolf, deceit is the snake, cowardice is the hare.
“8.Listen, my son, to the instruction of your father and do not reject your mother’s covenant, 9.for it is a wonderful wreath for your head and decoration for your neck."
(Book of proverbs).
The beautiful Tsarskoye Selo garden,
Where lion(i.e. Sweden) having defeated, died eagle Russia is powerful
In the bosom of peace and joy...
A. Pushkin
Allegory is common in the visual arts: a woman with a blindfold and scales in her hands is justice.
STYLISTIC TECHNIQUES.
HYPERBOLE is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of size, strength, meaning, etc. any phenomenon: IN one hundred and forty suns the sunset was glowing. (M.);
A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper. (G.)
The lazy man sits at the gate,
With my mouth wide open,
And no one will understand
Where is the gate and where is the mouth.
It will pass - as if the sun will shine! I saw how she squints:
If he looks, he’ll give you a ruble! With a wave, the mop is ready.
N. Nekrasov
LITOTA – 1) the opposite of hyperbole, or reverse hyperbole, containing an exorbitant understatement of size, strength, meaning, etc. any phenomenon: Below a thin blade of grass you have to bow your head... (N.) ; in Russian folklore - Tiny Khavroshechka, Little Thumb.
Another meaning of litotes is 2) the definition of a concept or object by negating the opposite: Not expensive I appreciate loud rights, from which more than one person’s head is spinning. (P.) ; he is not stupid (instead he is smart).
An example of the simultaneous use of hyperbole and litotes: Our world is wonderfully designed... It has an excellent cook, but, unfortunately, such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces; the other has mouth the size of the arch of the General Staff building, but, alas, must be content with some German potato dinner. (G.)
In literary works, hyperbole and litotes can convey high pathos or serve as a means of satire and humor:
“...And at these words the guest became all ears: her ears stretched out of their own accord, she stood up, almost unable to sit or hold on to the sofa, and, despite the fact that she was somewhat heavy, she suddenly became tone, began to look like light fluff. , which just like that will fly into the air from the blow.” (N. Gogol)
PERIPHRASE (or PERIPHRASE) is a turn of phrase that consists of replacing the name of a word or phrase with a descriptive turn of speech that indicates the characteristics of a directly named object or person. : author of “A Hero of Our Time” (instead of M.Yu. Lermontov); king of beasts (instead of lion); creator of Macbeth (Shakespeare); singer of Lithuania (Mickiewicz); singer of Gyaur and Juan (Byron).
ALLITERATION - repetition of consonant sounds.
Boo G rists take G ah, blah G nice vla G And,
ABOUT, G ors with G in bursts, G de G flies G I G nyat,
ABOUT, G glad G de tor G And, G de moz G circumferential sconces G And…
M. Lomonosov
One of the elementary types of alliteration is onomatopoeia, for example in the poem by V. Inber “Pulkovo Meridian” (the roar of fascist planes over besieged Leningrad):
Up R ychat ge R manskie moto R s:
- We are fu rr e R and poko R new R anyhow,
We p R ev R We are waiting for you rr ode to g rr oby,
We are sme R yeah...you won't be around any time soon rr O.
ASSONANCE – 1) repetition of vowels or groups of vowels:
I filled the charge in the at shk at T at th
And d at small: at gosch at I'm dr at ha!
M. Lermontov
2) incomplete rhyme, based on the identity (sometimes incomplete) of only stressed vowels with a mismatch of consonant sounds:
I want to go home enormity
Apartments suggestive sadness.
I'll come in, take off my coat, I'll come to my senses ,
Street lights I'll light up.
B. Pasternak
We watched for a long time sunset ,
Our neighbors keys angry.
To the ancient piano musician
bowed his sad gray hair.
B. Akhmadulina
*STYLISTIC FIGURES- a special construction of speech that enhances the expressiveness of the literary word. Unlike tropes, which enrich thought with new figurative content, stylistic figures influence the reader thanks to special methods of syntactic organization of speech.
ANAPHOR (or unity of beginning) is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of the passages that make up the statement.
Lexical anaphora:
I swear I am the first day of creation,
I swear his last day,
I swear the shame of crime
And the triumph of eternal truth...
M. Lermontov
Syntactic anaphora (repetition of the same type of syntactic constructions):
I am standing at the high doors,
I'm lying at your work.
M. Svetlov
Strophic anaphora:
Earth!..
From snow moisture
She's still fresh.
She wanders by herself
And breathes like deja.
Earth!..
She's running, running
Thousands of miles ahead.
Above her the lark trembles
And he sings about her.
A. Tvardovsky
EPIPHOR (or ending) is the repetition of words or expressions at the end of adjacent passages (sentences), poetic lines: I would like to know why I titular advisor? Why exactly titular advisor?(G.) ;
Dear friend, in this too quiet house
The fever hits me
I can't find a place in quiet house
Near the peaceful fire!
A. Blok
A RING is a frame, a repetition at the end of some elements of its beginning:
I'll give it to you I am a shawl from Khorosan
And a Shiraz carpet I'll give it to you.
S. Yesenin
The ring of the entire poem is sometimes called a ring composition: in the poem by A.S. Pushkin’s “Keep me safe, my talisman...” the last line repeats the first word for word.
PARALLELISM is the identical syntactic construction of neighboring sentences or segments of speech: Young people are treasured everywhere, old people are honored everywhere. (V. Lebedev-Kumach);
When horses die, they breathe,
When the grasses die, they dry up,
When the suns die, they go out,
When people die, they sing songs.
V. Khlebnikov
Parallelism can be compositional, when parallel plot lines develop in a novel or story
ANTITHESIS is a phrase in which opposing concepts are sharply contrasted: Where table there was food there coffin costs. (G. Derzhavin). Often the antithesis is built on antonyms: Rich and in Weekdays feasts and poor and in holiday grieving. (last) ;
Loved it rich –poor ,
Loved it scientist – stupid ,
Loved it rosy – pale ,
Loved it good – harmful :
Gold – copper half-shelf.
M. Tsvetaeva
Antithesis underlies many of the largest works, which is reflected in their titles: “War and Peace” by L. Tolstoy; "Crime and Punishment"
F. Dostoevsky, “Cunning and Love” by F. Schiller.
OXYMORON (or OXYMORON) is a combination of words with contrasting meanings that create a new concept or idea: dry wine; honest thief; free slaves; bitter joy; ringing silence; eloquent silence; “Living Corpse” (L.T.); “Optimistic tragedy” (Vs. Vishnevsky);
A. Pushkin Toy sad joy that I was alive.
Sometimes he falls passionately in love S. Yesenin
In my elegant sadness.
M. Lermontov
Look, she it's fun to be sad ,
Such elegantly naked.
A. Akhmatova
GRADATION is an arrangement of words that are close in meaning in order of increasing or decreasing their semantic or emotional significance, thereby creating an increase (or decrease) in the impression they make.
Ascending gradation: In autumn, the feather grass steppes completely change and receive their special, original, unlike anything else view. (S. Aksakov); Arriving home, Laevsky and Nadezhda Fedorovna entered their dark, stuffy, boring rooms. (A. Chekhov)
Descending gradation:
I swear to the wounds of Leningrad,
The first devastated hearths:
I won’t break, I won’t waver, I won’t get tired ,
I will not forgive my enemies a single grain.
O. Berggolts
INVERSION is the arrangement of the members of a sentence in a special order, violating the usual, so-called direct order. Inversion enhances the semantic load of the members of the sentence and transfers the statement from a neutral plane to an expressive-emotional plane: With fear I thought, where is all this leading! AND with despair I recognized his power over my soul. (P.) ; The horses were brought out. Didn't like it they to me. (I. Turgenev).
ELLIPSIS - omission of any implied part of the sentence: We turned villages into ashes, cities into dust, swords into sickles and plows. (V. Zhukovsky); Instead of bread there is a stone, instead of teaching there is a mallet. (S.-Sch.) The use of ellipsis gives the statement dynamism, intonation of lively speech, and artistic expressiveness.
SILENCE is a figure of speech in which the author deliberately does not fully express a thought, leaving the reader (or listener) to guess what is unspoken: No, I wanted...perhaps you...I thought it was time for the baron to die. (P.) ; What did you both think and feel? Who will know? Who's to say? There are such moments in life, such feelings... You can only point to them and pass by. (T.).
RHETORICAL APPEAL – an emphatic appeal to someone or something: Flowers, love, village, idleness, field! I am devoted to you with my soul. (P.) ; Oh you, whose letters are many, many in my briefcase on the bank. (N.) ; Quiet, speakers! Your word, Comrade Mauser. (M.).
RHETORICAL QUESTION - a question is posed not with the goal of getting an answer, but to attract the attention of the reader (or listener) to a particular phenomenon in order to make a statement in interrogative form: Do you know Ukrainian night? (G.) ; Or is it new for us to argue with Europe? Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories? (P.) ; And what Russian doesn’t like driving fast? (G.).
POLYCONJUNCTION is a construction of a phrase in which all or almost all homogeneous members of the sentence are connected to each other by the same conjunction (usually the conjunction “and”). With the help of a multi-union, the purposefulness and unity of the listed items are emphasized: A thin rain fell And to the forests, And to the fields, And on the wide Dnieper. (G.) ; The ocean walked before my eyes, And swayed And thundered And sparkled And was fading away And glowed And went somewhere into infinity. (V. Korolenko).
The same when repeating a conjunction between parts of a complex sentence: Houses were burning at night, And the wind was blowing And black bodies on the gallows swayed in the wind, And Crows screamed above them. (A. Kuprin).
The lines where, next to polyunion, the opposite non-union is used, become more expressive:
There was typhus And ice, And hunger, And blockade.
Everything was gone: cartridges, coal, bread.
The crazy city has turned into a crypt,
Where the cannonade echoed loudly.
G. Shengeli
UNION - intentional omission of connecting conjunctions between members of a sentence or between sentences: the absence of conjunctions gives the statement speed, saturation of impressions within the overall picture; speech becomes more concise and compact: Swede, Russian - stabbing, chopping, cutting, Drumming, clicks, grinding, Thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning... (P.) A non-union listing of subject names can be used to create the impression of a quick change of pictures: Booths, women, boys, shops, lanterns, palaces, gardens, monasteries, Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens, merchants, shacks, men, boulevards, towers, Cossacks, pharmacies, fashion stores, balconies, lions on the gates flash past... (P. ).
The unionless union of homogeneous members indicates the incompleteness and inexhaustibility of the enumerated series. Connecting homogeneous members with a repeating conjunction And The idea of the inexhaustibility of the enumerated series is expressed most clearly. Single union And, connecting the last two homogeneous members, gives the enumeration the character of completeness.
Means of lexical expression- lexical units of language, the visual capabilities of which are used to create literary images.
The means of lexical expressiveness traditionally include:
- synonyms, i.e. words of the same part of speech, different in sound, but identical or similar in lexical meaning and differing from each other either in shades of meaning or stylistic coloring (brave - courageous, run - rush, eyes(neutral) - eyes(poet.), have great expressive power;
- antonyms- words of the same part of speech, opposite in meaning (truth - false, good - evil, disgusting - wonderful);
- homonyms- words that are the same in form but have different meanings (marriage is a flaw And marriage - marriage, swearing - swearing And abuse - war, bench - bench And shop - shop, steep bank And cool boiling water, make a film - take off your hat), and their varieties: homophones(words that sound the same, but have different meanings and spellings: company - campaign, offend - run around, aisle - limit, turn gray - sit), homographs(words that are the same in spelling, but different in meaning and pronunciation: flour - flour, village - village, house - house) And homoforms(words that have the same sound and spelling only in certain forms: my house - wash your hands, three comrades - spot three carefully);
- paronyms- words that are similar in sound and spelling, but have different meanings (individuality - individualism, smoky - smoke, noisy - noisy, payment - payments A ).
These linguistic phenomena (conventionally they can be called non-special lexical figurative and expressive means of language) become means of expressiveness only in a specific text, where they are used to enhance the brightness of what is depicted and the strength of its impact on the addressee.
The main means of lexical expressiveness are trails. This special figurative and expressive means of language, based on the use of words in a figurative meaning.
The main types of tropes include epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis (periphrase), hyperbole, litotes, irony.
Epithet(translated from Greek - “application”, “addition”) is a figurative definition that marks a feature in the depicted phenomenon that is essential for a given context. The epithet differs from a simple definition in its artistic expressiveness and imagery. The epithet is based on a hidden comparison.
Epithets include all “colorful” definitions, which are most often expressed by adjectives: sad orphaned land(Tyutchev), gray fog, lemon light, silent peace(Bunin). Epithets can also be expressed:
- nouns acting as applications or predicates, giving a figurative characteristic of an object: winter sorceress; mother is the damp earth; The poet is a lyre, and not just the nanny of his soul(M. Gorky);
- adverbs acting as circumstances: In the wild north it stands alone...(Lermontov); The leaves were tensely stretched in the wind(Paustovsky);
- participles: the waves rush thundering and sparkling;
- pronouns expressing the superlative degree of a particular state of the human soul:
After all, there were battles,
Yes, they say, even more!(Lermontov);
- participles and participial phrases:Nightingales announce the forest limits with their thundering words(Parsnip); I also admit the appearance of... greyhound writers who cannot prove where they spent the night yesterday, and who have no other words in their language, except for words that do not remember kinship
(Saltykov-Shchedrin).
The creation of figurative epithets is usually associated with the use of words in a figurative meaning. From the point of view of the type of figurative meaning of a word acting as an epithet, all epithets are divided into metaphorical ones (they are based on a metaphorical figurative meaning: golden cloud, bottomless sky, lilac fog) and metonymic (they are based on a metonymic figurative meaning: suede gait(Nabokov); scratchy look(Bitter); birch cheerful tongue(Yesenin).
An epithet can incorporate the properties of many tropes. Based on metaphor or metonymy, it can also be combined with personification: ...foggy and quiet azure over the sadly orphaned land(Tyutchev), hyperbole (Autumn already knows that such a deep and silent peace is a harbinger of long bad weather(Bunin) and other paths and figures.
Comparison is a visual technique based on the comparison of one phenomenon or concept with another.
The villages are burning, they have no protection.
The sons of the fatherland are defeated by the enemy,
And the glow is like an eternal meteor,
Playing in the clouds frightens the eye(Lermontov).
Comparisons are expressed in various ways:
- instrumental case form of nouns:
Nightingale vagrant
Youth has flown by
Wave in bad weather
The joy has faded away(Koltsov);
- comparative form of an adjective or adverb:
These eyes are greener than the sea and our cypress trees are darker(Akhmatova);
- comparative turnovers with unions as if, as if, as if and etc.:
Like a predatory beast, into a humble abode
The winner bursts in with bayonets...(Lermontov);
- using words similar, similar, this:
On the eyes of a cautious cat
Your eyes are similar(Akhmatova);
- using comparative clauses:
Golden leaves swirled
In the pinkish water of the pond,
Like a light flock of butterflies
Flies breathlessly towards a star(Yesenin).
Metaphor(translated from Greek as “transfer”) is a word or expression that is used in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena for some reason.
Unlike a comparison, which contains both what is being compared and what is being compared with, a metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness in the use of the word.
A metaphor can be based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, volume, purpose, sensations, etc.: a waterfall of stars, an avalanche of letters, a wall of fire, an abyss of grief, a pearl of poetry, a spark of love and etc.
All metaphors are divided into two groups:
- general language (“erased”): golden hands, a storm in a teacup, moving mountains, strings of the soul, love has faded;
- artistic (individual author's, poetic):
And the stars fade diamond thrill
IN painless cold of dawn (Voloshin);
Empty heaven transparent glass (Akhmatova);
AND blue, bottomless eyes
Blooming on the far shore(Block).
Personification- this is a type of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of a living being to natural phenomena, objects and concepts.
Most often, personifications are used to describe nature:
Rolling through sleepy valleys,
The sleepy mists have settled,
And only the clatter of horses,
Sounding, it gets lost in the distance.
The day has gone out, turning pale autumn,
Rolling up the fragrant leaves,
They eat sleep without dreams
Semi-withered flowers (Lermontov).
Less commonly, personifications are associated with the objective world:
Isn't it true, never again
Will we not part? Enough?..
AND the violin answered Yes,
But the violin's heart was hurting.
Bow All Understood, He quieted down,
And in the violin the echo was still there...
And it was torment for them,
What people thought was music(Annensky);
There was something good-natured and at the same time cozy in the face of this house(Mamin-Sibiryak).
Metonymy(translated from Greek as “renaming”) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity. Adjacency can be a manifestation of connection:
- between content and contained:
I ate three plates(Krylov);
- between the author and the work:
Scolded Homer, Theocritus,
But I read Adam Smith(Pushkin);
- between action and instrument of action:
Their villages and fields for a violent raid
He condemned him to swords and fires(Pushkin);
- between an object and the material from which the object is made:
...not on silver, but on gold(Griboyedov);
- between a place and the people in that place:
The city was noisy, flags were crackling, wet roses were falling from the bowls of flower girls...(Olesha)
Synecdoche(translated from Greek as “correlation”) is a type of metonymy based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them.
Most often the transfer occurs:
- from smaller to larger:
To him and bird doesn't fly
AND tiger not coming...(Pushkin);
- from part to whole:
Beard Why are you still silent?(Chekhov).
Periphrase, or paraphrase(translated from Greek - a descriptive expression) is a phrase that is used instead of a word or phrase.
For example, St. Petersburg in the poems of A. S. Pushkin - “ Peter's creation», « Full countries beauty and wonder», « city of Petrov"; A. A. Blok in poems by M. I. Tsvetaeva - “ knight without reproach», « blue-eyed snow singer», « snow swan», « Almighty of my soul."
Hyperbola(translated from Greek as “exaggeration”) is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of any attribute of an object, phenomenon, or action:
A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper(Gogol).
Citizens! Today the thousand-year-old “Before” is collapsing.
Today the world framework is being revised.
Today
Down to the last button of your clothes
Let's remake life again(Mayakovsky).
Litotes(translated from Greek - “smallness”, “moderation”) is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of any attribute of an object, phenomenon, action:
What tiny cows!
There are, right, less than a pinhead(Krylov).
Irony(translated from Greek as “pretence”) is the use of a word or statement
in the opposite sense to the direct one. Irony is a type of allegory in which
Behind the outwardly positive assessment lies mockery:
Why, smart one, are you delirious, head?(Krylov)
